Chapter Six 

Or Lys 

A developed nation in Organelle 

A spherical vesicle that contain hydrolytic enzymes

What is hydrolytic?

are used for the controlled intracellular digestion of macromolecules.

types of hydrolytic enzymes, including proteases,

nucleases,

DNA nucleases catalyze the cleavage

What is DNA cleavage?

A reaction that severs one of the covalent sugar-phosphate linkages between nucleotides

What are nucleotides?

 A nucleotide consists of a sugar molecule (either ribose in RNA or deoxyribose in DNA)

What is RNA?

Unlike DNA, RNA is most often single-stranded instead of a double helix 

The primary function of RNA is to create proteins via translation

RNA translation into protein is carried out in three steps:

 initiation,

Initiation is the beginning of transcription

What is transcription?

a written or printed representation of something

In biology it is the process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA. Some segments of DNA are transcribed into RNA molecules that can encode proteins

Meaning to convert from one system of communication into another

called messenger RNA

The role of mRNA is to carry protein information from the DNA in a cell's nucleus to the cell's cytoplasm

It occurs when the enzyme RNA polymerase

Which is a multi-unit enzyme that is responsible for creating a complementary strand of nucleic acid, called RNA, from a single-stranded DNA template through the incorporation of adenosine,

is the source of energy for use and storage at the cellular level

cytosine,

can act as a co-factor to enzymes,

A co-factor is to empower enzymes to function at maximal catalytic effectiveness or endurance

and can transfer a phosphate to convert adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

essential to the flow of energy in living organisms

to adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

to transfer energy to cells by releasing its phosphate groups

guanine

Used to power chemical reactions and are involved in signaling inside the cell

and uracil nucleotides

Because of structural differences, uracil is less stable than thymine and more susceptible to mutations.

DNA, which holds the genetic information passed down from generation to generation, must be stable and resistant to alterations. As a result, uracil is exclusively found in RNA and not in DNA

…binds to a region of a gene called the promoter

is a region of DNA where relevant proteins bind to initiate transcription of that gene

This signals the DNA to unwind so the enzyme can ''read'' the bases in one of the DNA strands. 

The enzyme is now ready to make a strand of mRNA with a complementary sequence of bases.

elongation,

through the addition of nucleotide units,

a sugar molecule either ribose in RNA

or deoxyribose in DNA

both ribose and deoxyribose are the “backbone” of RNA and DNA

attached to a phosphate group and a nitrogen-containing base

resulting in the lengthening of the nucleic acid chain

long chainlike molecules composed of a series of nearly identical building blocks called nucleotides

and termination

Termination is the ending of transcription, and occurs when RNA polymerase

a group of enzymes that catalyse the synthesis of DNA during replication

crosses a stop (termination) sequence in the gene.

attached to a phosphate group

What is a phosphate?

and a nitrogen-containing base. The bases used in DNA 

of phosphodiester bonds

Which are the linkage between the phosphate of one nucleotide and the hydroxyl group

These enzymes play crucial roles in various DNA repair processes, which involve

DNA replication, 

Replication occurs in three major steps:

 the opening of the double helix and separation of the DNA strands,

the priming of the template strand,

only one strand serves as a template for transcription at any given time

and the assembly of the new DNA segment.

base excision repair,

a conserved, intracellular DNA repair system that recognizes and removes chemically modified bases to insure genomic integrity and prevent mutations 

nucleotide excision repair,

the main pathway used to remove bulky DNA lesions

mismatch repair,

A system designed to recognize and restore misincorporation of single bases, deletions and erroneous mini-insertions

and double strand break repair

Being homologous recombination

a type of genetic recombination in which nucleotide sequences are exchanged between two similar or identical molecules of DNA.

and nonhomologous DNA end joining 

Non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) is a pathway that repairs double-strand breaks in DNA. It is called "non-homologous" because the break ends are directly ligated without the need for a homologous template

glycosidases,

Being the degradation of polysaccharides as food sources through to manipulation of the structures of glycoconjugates on the surfaces of proteins and cells

phospholipases,

enzymes that cleave ester bonds

The bond that forms between the oxygen and carbon atoms

within phospholipids

major membrane lipids

phosphatases,

 an enzyme that removes a phosphate group from a protein

and sulfatases that digest many kinds of biomolecules

Which are Phosphate esters and nucleases

An organelle that helps the cells in autolysis

breakdown of all or part of a cell or tissue by self-produced enzymes